Impact Of Christian Missionary Activity

Impact Of Christian Missionary Activity Colonialism in the nineteenth century and early twentieth centuries was part and parcel of the world history, whether one was part of the Colonial empires or countries under colonial rule. Colonialism was not simply a social and economical form of oppression but also cultural, mostly religious for those who lived under its grip. Indeed from the British Raj to the French rule around the world, religion acted as a backbone to infiltrate and convert en masse or divert locals or natives from what was believed to be erroneous religions. Christianity in this way became an important import for colonies around the world. India is such an example. Under British rule since the 18th century, India was subjugated for three centuries until its independence in 1947. This rule has obviously left a big impact on the Indian landscape namely on the cultural and political scene because of education and the counter reaction of Hinduism. This essay will thus attempt to gauge the extent of Christian Missi onary activity in India and its modernizing effect if any. The different ways in which Christian missions operated will be analysed as well as its impact on education and Hinduism. This will be undertaken by describing the concept of modernity from a western perspective and how it applies to the Indian case. The impact of Christian Missions on education will be accounted for as well as the debate over the Hindu Renaissance of the 19th century and whether it was indeed a renaissance. Moreover this essay will assess the impact of Christian activities as having been conducive to the Indian nationalist movement and how this subsequently led to Indias Independence from British Colonial Rule. MODERNITY AND WHAT CONSTITUTES MODERNITY. The concept of modernity is western and a term devised and applied in the West because of the shift from the medieval era to the modern since the Enlightenment. Thus to speak of modernity in the Indian context, one needs to define what modernity entails. Firstly modernity for Marx was to be associated with the rise of capitalist commodity production and for Weber, in the abstract principle of rationalization of the world (Kaviraj, 2000 p137). Modernity sees a state possess several features like a capitalist industrial economy, modern state institutions like the army and forms of democracy. Moreover the community of the traditional society tends to be replaced by the individual enterprise whilst religion tends to be overshadowed by secular values. (Kaviraj, 2000 p137) .Whilst all of the mentioned elements do not have to operate at the same time for a modern society to take shape, they are the prerequisites for one. Furthermore, it is believed that due to prerequisites like democracy, capitalist industrial economy ,etc ,that modernity tends to replicate itself around the globe as it supplants the traditional environment and replaces it with new set of practices altogether. However, this idea does not take into account the plurality and diversity of some places (Kaviraj, 2000 p138) India is such an example. Modernity does not operate on a tabula rasa but rather has to work along existing cultures and beliefs. Moreover, modernity in the Western perspective tends to suggest an image of homogeneity, where rationality prevails over economic, political and cultural spheres. This is rather far from the truth as one can see in Indias case, where plurality and diversity have always been present and in fact regions make up this vast country. Therefore, modernity cannot be applied to all cases in the same way and does not replicate itself around the globe through a common pattern. Even western countries had rather diverse trials and errors path towards modernity.India for i nstance is an extreme culturally fragmented case. The notion of being Indian did not take shape until British Colonial rule. Also, the social fragmentation of class and castes and royalties controlling parts of India made it hard to translate into a nation. However, British rule did contribute into putting perspective to the various religions and their differences. India first of all came under British rule due to the lack of a central state and lack of forms of democracy. Initially starting as a corporation enterprise, the East India enterprise very quickly saw itself acting as a state mostly by collecting revenues, production of statistics etc (Kaviraj, 2000 p143). In this way, British rule sought to transform the Indian colony into a western type state. However Indias diversity and class/caste ridden society could not follow into the Western tradition. India at that point was too embedded by religious and traditional beliefs to be turned into a modern state The modernity that beset the West socially, economically and culturally could thus not be repeated in India. The district of Bengal for instance saw a definite cultural revolution in the 19th century, where Western rationalization of thought seemed to have taken place. However the lack of infrastructures and material prospects could not emulate Western Counterparts so that Bengal could be termed as modern (Kopf, 1979 p9-11). Modernity in 19th century Bengal was allowed by the implementation of rising communication such as printing, education in the form of missionary schools. Moreover, the rise of Bhadraloks and the consolidation of intellectual elite as Ranmohun Roy witnessed a shift from the traditional to the modern. However this was concentrated mainly in urban areas and reserved for the privileged, mostly the middle class. Calcutta is such an example whereby the Bengali Renaissance found itself being the preserve of the few intellectual elite and not one to touch base with most people in general. The next chapters will thus determine whether India turned into a modern state under Christian Missionary activity or did it only see a cultural revival. It is essential to start with education as it became the first port of call for missionaries in India to use as weapon for conversions. THE IMPACT OF MISSIONARY SCHOOLS AND EDUCATION IN INDIA. The printing of ancient texts revived a spark of interest in Indian traditions and texts even from British scholars and missionaries. In effect comparative studies became a key tool into understanding the Indian tradition and values (Killingley, 2003 p509-14).A world completely different from the homogeneity of religion and languages of the Western world, understanding the Indian society and transforming it into a Western project as was the British agenda could be achieved only by instilling western values of religion namely Christianity. This was to be attempted by mission school and missionaries which were meant to bridge the religious gap between Christianity and Hinduism and also Islam. Although initially banned for fear on treading on local beliefs and traditions, missionary schools soon became more popular than anticipated and can be said to be conducive to Indian modernity through the revival of Hinduism (Bellenoit, 2007 p369). Missionary education would also be a catalyst for the Independence movement for it enabled men as Mahatma Gandhi to formulate their political discourse for Indian and Western audiences as well. Missionary education was set up by the British as means to be promote Western education, mainly the notions of rationalization but also to separate the false religions from the real. Indeed, Christianity in the late 19th and early 20th century had become the most widespread religion through colonies and in the Western World, the religion de facto in a sense. Western education in India was to thus boost Christian morality as opposed to the myriads of myths and ancient rites of Indian society. Practices like Sati, the Caste system with its unfair treatment of untouchables and the subordination of women in general became a cause for concern for some of the missionaries. Mission schools were thus intended to be centres of spiritual and religious dialogue as well as centres of academic learning but more importantly a way to impart Hindus the right Christian and moral ways ( Bellenoit,2007 p371) The colonial enterprise in India was a Christian enterprise above all. Missionary schools became increasingly popular, especially North India. They became synonymous to better life opportunities and social status. At the heart of these schools, lay religious debates and comparative lectures between Hinduism and Christianity. Through the comparative studies, missionaries wished to universalize Christianity by finding common things with Hinduism and help the pupils dispel traditions and mythical beliefs which went against the core values of Christianity. These schools moreover relied also on Indian agency and enterprise rather than British administration, which was thought to be conducive to Indians as being part of the Western modern family. However, these comparative studies only served to destabilize the imparted Western knowledge at these schools .Indeed, rather than concentrating on the religious curriculum these schools became centres of academic pursuits by most students. Conversions being the ultimate goal were viewed suspiciously by parents who s ometimes threatened to pull their children out of these schools. Protests were often made by parents who feared that their children would turn Christians and any Christian activities would be frowned upon, seen as a disregard to Hindu culture and values (Bellenoit, 2007 p372) The Christian education only appealed to Indians for it automatically secured better life opportunities and social status within Indian society. Students meanwhile seemed to develop dual allegiances, one to their rational westernized education and the other to the beliefs of their ancestors, seeped in myths and traditions. Mission schools thus were subject to protests and Indian agency from parents to administration and were not just a passive process where Indian pupils imbibed Christian lessons and forgot about their traditions. In Northern India for instance, missionary schools became a way for Indians to contest the so called superiority of Western knowledge and Christianity especially when it came to the i ssue of the dvaita (duality) nature of God which both Hindus and Christians believed in (Bellenoit, 2007 p373-374) The mastering of English language enabled students to forage into Western literature and philosophy. This allowed for Indians to seek and re read their own sacred texts as well as ancient writings which showed the richness of Indian culture and lost traditions of reason and logic which had predated the Italian Renaissance and the Enlightenment. Western notions of rationalization and education in effect helped shape the Indian enterprise for learning and by extension helped them revive or discover what would eventually shape Indian modernity and the process of Independence. However these mission schools were reserved to a few privileged. Moreover, the issues of caste and class still persisted. The interesting outcome of the missionary schools is that they were marked by interdependency and contestation between Europeans and Indians and that this was also a side of coloni al rule and that Indians did not allow themselves to be culturally subordinated (Bellenoit, 2007 p393) In this light, it can be said that Christian activity did bring some forms of modernity in India, mostly in the form of Western style schools and education. Indians, mainly the privileged classes saw the benefit of this system. Indias vast middle class would be formed by this Christian education. However, the outcome of mission schools also meant the revival of Hinduism pupils now armed with English language could compare the West and their own culture. A cultural modernity seems to have taken place with the activities of Missionary schools. REFORM IN HINDUISM DUE TO COLONIAL PRESENCE. It has been pointed out that missionary schools were set up to bridge the gap between Hinduism and Christianity. The presence of Christianity in India was subject to coexistence and conflict. This conflict/ coexistence relationship thus allows for individuals to stay within their religious boundaries or to try synthesising both. The presence of Colonial rule in nineteenth century India forced Hindus to reanalyse the fundamental structure of Hinduism. The threat of missionary schools and the en mass conversion of low caste groups became a turning point for the future of Hinduism which had until then been free from any pressures except for Islam through the Mughal empire. Christianity in India was present through the Church and it was a force to be reckoned with, for it had a clear structure and hierarchy unlike the multifaceted one of Hinduism This then encouraged Indians to congregate and to create a semblance of unity for political aspirations and discourses (Beckerlegge 2004 p145). The creation of the Brahmo Samaj by Ranmohun Roy and the Dharma Sabha and Swami Vivekananda Ramakrishna Math and Mission are such examples. Although these groups are western in form, they were effective in regrouping like minded men, although mostly from upper classes to find ways into counter attacking British policies and rules. Moreover it helped into bringing about changes within Hinduism. (Beckerlegge, 2004 p149). Missionary activity thus sparked a Hindu revival that would follow in the European traditions of rationality and intellectual thought. Faced with an ever present Christian force, Hinduism would face change from the inside as what is known as the Hindu Renaissance. The Hindu Renaissance. The Hindu Renaissance can be described as a time marked by the reformulation of Hindu thought, practice and organization. It started roughly in 1820s and lasted until India gained its independence from Britain( Beckerlegge,2004 p138) The Hindu Renaissance is extremely important as it shaped modernity in India and allowed for charismatic leaders like Mahatma Gandhi and Sri Aurobindo to formulate their political discourses thereafter. The Hindu Renaissance promoted a different style of Hinduism ,namely a modern Hinduism , a neo Hinduism characterized by the relationship between religion and nationalism , the majority of its thinkers having been exposed to western thought , Christianity and education (Beckerlegge,2004 p 139)Placing greater importance on the individual similar to the Enlightenment rather than traditional authorities , the worship of idols and belief in old traditions became a burden. Moreover the traditional Hindu concepts such as dharma and yoga were reinterpreted, eve n gaining International recognition. This new style Hinduism also sought to be at the service of humanity and to its betterment (Beckerlegge, 2004 p 139) As Sarkar points out, the Hindu Renaissance appealed to the middle class for it was created by a middle class which saw the movement as a transitional shift from medieval times to a modern one (Sarkar in Beckerlegge,2004 p 140) The Hindu Renaissance saw the emergence of figures as Ranmohun Roy, Swami Vivekanda and the prominence of cities like Calcutta acting as intellectual hub. People like Roy and Vivekananda tried to incorporate the elements of Christianity and Hinduism into their discourses and writings believing it would not only educate Hindus but also Christians. The precepts of Jesus by Roy are such an example. The Hindu revival aimed into seeking the universality of religions, by finding their common link, a supra power. Roy saw in Christian teachings the universal truth found in all religions but that the greatest form was in Hinduism, namely the Advaita Vedanta. Similar to the traditions and practices that had beset Hinduism, he thought Christianity had been riddled with the Trinitarian theology and supernaturalism (Beckerlegge, 2004 p 151). Similarly Swami Vivekanandas attempt to an inclusive and dynamic Hinduism made him accept the person of Jesus and his teachings. He believed individuals and religions were aiming for the same destination albeit at different times and places. The truth of religions was found in their convergence rather than their historical differences. Figures like Roy and Vivekananda were referred to as Hindu Christians or tacit Christians. However this is a rather Eurocentric view. Hinduism was then reformulated by social and political context of the 19th century Calcutta and the clash of Indian and colonial rule. The Hindu Renaissance also posited a fundamental question, the relationship of the colonized versus the colonizer, a debate which made Indians question why they had been colonized in the first place and why Hinduism had been threatened by the advent of Christianity. The colonial project was an inherently Christian enterprise. The works of Roy and Swami Vivekananda aimed at answering this fundamental question by finding a common ground through the universality of religions. (Van der Veer, 2001 p44-8, 66-70,72-4). It is the western quality of these writings appealed to Western and Indian audiences alike. But these western type discourses were motivated by a Hindu spirituality not to be found in Christianity (Van der Veer, 2001 p44-8 ,66-70,72-4). However the Hindu Renaissance was not a fundamental break from its past. The issues of castes, namely the Untouchables was not abolished. This Bengali renaissance culture only spread in urban areas and amongst the upper middle class bhadraloks . Some of Hinduisms rigid lines when it came to castes and hierarchy were still very traditional and still pervade (Sarkar, 1990 p 95-105).Moreover it took a longer period from the Hindu Renaissance to the actual independence of India , meaning the Hindu Renaissance was not as planned but rather occurred on an ad hoc basis. The Hindu Renaissance did not transform Indian society in a modern one. Christian Missionary activity in India had a modernising tendency to the extent that it brought a western style education through mission schools and the Church. Missionary activity acted as a binding factor for India as it made Indians think of themselves as Indians for the first time. As seen above, modernity entails a notion of statehood as well as industrial and economic growth. The weak links of Hinduism were introspected as well as the clear lack of hierarchy and structure that Britain possessed. A major question was to ask why India had been allowed to be colonized in the first place and how different was it from the Wests state structure. This in turn brought about the Hindu Renaissance with clear western features but imbued with a Hindu spirituality and essence. Morever it allowed Hinduism to possess a more rational and intellectualized discourse through men like Ranmohun Roy and Swami Vivekananda. They wished to syncretise Hinduism and Christianity to prove the universality of religions and thus demonstrate that colonialism was a discriminate and unfair venture on the Wests behalf. Missionary schools as highlighted above allowed Indians agency and contestation as education gave a platform to voice out opinions about Christianity and the colonial rule. Hinduism was thus further reinforced by western educated voices rather than traditional and illiterate ones. Although not advanced infrastructurally by comparison to its western counterparts, India had entered a new era of political and cultural effervescence under the pressure of Christian missionaries and colonial rule. Those activities helped modernity trough key figures as Gandhi and Nehru who would eventually help India gain independence. It can be concluded that Christian mission activity helped India culturally modernize itself and think as a nation although marked by major regional differences.

Volcanoes Essay -- essays research papers fc

A Look Into Volcanoes I. Introduction Volcano: defined is a mountain or hill formed by the accumulation of materials erupted through one or more openings (called volcanic vents) in the earth's surface. The term volcano can also refer to the vents themselves. Most volcanoes have steep sides, but some can be gently sloping mountains or even flat tablelands, plateaus, or plains. The volcanoes above sea level are the best known, but the vast majority of the world's volcanoes lie beneath the sea, formed along the global oceanic ridge systems that crisscross the deep ocean floor. According to the Smithsonian Institution, 1511 above-sea volcanoes have been active during the past 10,000 years, 539 of them erupting one or more times during written history. On average, 50 to 60 above-sea volcanoes worldwide are active in any given year; about half of these are continuations of eruptions from previous years, and the rest are new. Mount St. Helen Volcanic eruptions in populated regions are a significant threat to peo ple, property, and agriculture. The danger is mostly from fast-moving, hot flows of explosively erupted materials, falling ash, and highly destructive lava flows and volcanic debris flows. In addition, explosive eruptions, even from volcanoes in unpopulated regions, can eject ash high into the atmosphere, creating drifting volcanic ash clouds that pose a serious hazard to airplanes. II. Volcano Formation All volcanoes are formed by the accumulation of magma which is molten rock that forms below the earth's surface. Magma can erupt through one or more volcanic vents, which can be a single opening, a cluster of openings, or a long crack, called a fissure vent. It forms deep within the earth, generally within the upper part of the mantle which is one of the layers of the earth's crust, or less commonly, within the base of the earth's crust. High temperatures and pressures are needed to form magma. The solid mantle or crustal rock must be melted under conditions typically reached at dep ths of 50 to 60 mi. (80 to 100 km) below the earth's surface. Once tiny droplets of magma are formed, they begin to rise because the magma is less dense than the solid rock surrounding it. The processes that cause the magma to rise are poorly understood, but it generally moves upward toward lower pressure regions, squeezing into spaces between minerals within the soli... ...the first blobs of melt. As melting continues other minerals start to melt as well, and the chemistry of the magma changes. From studies like this geologists have determined that the early stages of a Hawaiian volcano's life is generated by magmas derived from only small degrees of partial melting (such as only 5% of the source melting and the rest staying behind). On the other hand, when the volcano really gets going (such as at Kilauea and Mauna Loa), the percentage of source rock that melts to produce the magma is perhaps as high as 20%. There are many other ways in which chemistry is used in volcanology, including the studies of volcanic gases, crater lakes, and trying to determine the temperatures that lava had at the time they were erupted even long after the eruption has ended. Bibliography Bibliography 1999 Microsoft Encarta; Volcanoes 1980 USGS; www.vulcan.wr.usgs.gov 2000 Volcano World; http://volcano.und.nodak.edu/vwdocs/frequent-questions/grp13/question1544.html 1980-2000 USGS; www.vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/photo/volcanoes/MSH/framework.html 1993-2000 Microsoft Corporation; various volcano media 2000 FEMA; www.fema.gov/library/volcanof.htm Word Count: 2186

Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill Essay

On April 20, 2010 a catastrophic explosion on the Deepwater Horizon off shore drilling platform caused the largest single release to the environment due to oil drilling. This explosion killed 11 workers and injured 17. This oil spill is very controversial because it can be questioned if this spill could have been prevented and what exactly went wrong. There is much debate on who is to blame, what could have been done to prevent it and who is going to pay for all the damage. Many are not happy with the settlement BP is signing that will keep them from further criminal prosecution if they agree to pay the settlement amount. Paying retribution is fine, but what about the future damaging effects that we have no way of even knowing about now. Who will take care of that? These are some of the basic questions people are asking about this case and my responses. What can this accident teach us? This accident should teach us all that there is a great responsibility taken on when you go into the earth and try to harvest chemical products that have potential for negative effects on human welfare and health. The government needs to be in charge of regulating these activities to preserve the future of our environment. Had you been in charge of granting permit for this, what measures would you have prescribed to prevent or mitigate the impacts of such an accident? Policies need to be in place that ensures that properly trained personnel are on site at all times to ensure the safety of the drilling process. Only experienced personnel could properly react to an emergency and possibly be able to mitigate further damage. Knowledge and experience are required to recognize potential hazards in time and prevent even bigger negative effects. BP engineers were supposedly aware of variations in the pressure prior to the explosion. These engineers probably did not have the authority to request work be stopped so further inspections could be made. Politics involved with the money at stake sometimes lead to dangerous decisions. If someone with the knowledge and authority to make an executive decision was there, this tragedy could possibly have been avoided. If you were in a policy making forum, what national or international policy measures would you recommend for reducing long term risk from off-shore drilling. I think the policies on long term risk from off-shore drilling accidents could be addressed by building some kind of boundary wall to contain the drill site, even if there was not a spill. Just the act of drilling is releasing some form of contamination and if that contamination could be contained before it gets incorporated into the entire different city/ country’s water supply it would be a great benefit to prevent long term effects of oil contamination. International policies need to be in effect that maintain the same standards across the board. If one country has low standards and takes in the contaminated water†¦ they will then be releasing it into the environment and the contamination will still affect neighboring countries/cities that may have stricter standards. If I was involved in any type of policymaking forum, I would try to get policy passed that had strict policies regarding quality control practices regarding the technology being used to drill for the oil and the equipment maintenance. Increased testing of drilling equipment during and between drilling process, not just at the start stage. Sometimes equipment fails during use and quality measures need to be in place to make frequent inspections. What changes would you require in terms of ethical conduct by regulators? Regulators need to not be financially involved with projects the are legislating. This is a huge ethical problem because kickbacks and donations often lead to favorable legislations in favor of the party standing to gain and not for the best interest of the public. To what degree may politics have clouded judgment and influenced decisions that where made? Relaxed government regulation was probably made because the government in efforts to promote business, made acquisitions that were dangerous and costly to the environment in the long run.

Effects Of Advertisements On Your Children - 992 Words

Advertisements here, advertisements there, advertisements everywhere! Have you ever wondered what would happen if these advertisements take over the beautiful little minds of your children? Have you ever considered the impacts of advertisements on your children? All you parents must be wondering why your child comes to you every day to ask you to buy him/her a new product that has been launched and is of their interest, right? I am a member of the Children’s Association, and I have written this article to tell you what exactly it is that is causing the children the urge to buy these products. Firstly, when we think about advertisements, what comes to our mind is their main aim. The main aim of advertisements or marketers is to create awareness and to ‘persuade’ the society to purchase the product. Who will benefit? You or them? Your child will come to you asking you to buy him a new flying gadget that has been launched, and no matter what, your child will go through anything to make sure that you buy him the product. This is called the ‘Nag Factor’. The above picture has a very deep meaning and it tells us that the television media is capturing and taking over our minds! So what is the nag factor? Well, the nag factor is basically the tendency of children, who are bombarded with marketers messages, to unrelentingly request advertised items (ScienceDaily, 2011). It is when children are shown advertisements and they are persuaded by the marketer to get the product.Show MoreRelatedThe Adverse Effects Of Advertising On Children1428 Words   |  6 PagesThe Adverse Effects of Advertising on Children By: David Tran Advance Placement Psychology Mr. Cuetara 6/4/2015 Abstract Advertisers have been targeting children to market their products to for years now. 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